psychology Deep Research
arrow_back Back to research list

Scythian Shamans: A Comprehensive Study

person Verified Contributor
calendar_today April 01, 2025

Scythian Shamans: A Comprehensive Study

Historical Sources and Accounts

Greek and Roman Descriptions: Ancient authors provide the earliest accounts of Scythian spiritual practices. Herodotus (5th century BCE) describes the Scythians as having many diviners who use bundles of willow wands for prophecy. Uniquely, a class of androgynous priests called “Enarees” (Greek: Enarees, from Scythian Anarya, meaning “un-manly”) practiced a special method of divination using linden (lime-tree) bark (Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt. 4.67.1). Herodotus notes that these Enarees claimed the goddess Aphrodite (whom the Scythians called Artimpasa) gave them this art of prophecy (Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt. 4.67.1). They would cut the linden bark into strips, braid and unbraid it around their fingers to interpret divine will (Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt. 4.67.1). This is distinct from the regular Scythian soothsayers who cast lots with willow sticks. Herodotus also reports that the Scythians’ highest oath was sworn by the king’s hearth, and if a Scythian king fell ill, the Enarees were consulted to identify who had violated an oath – the supposed cause of the illness (Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt. 4.67.1) (Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt. 4.67.1). Suspected oath-breakers were brought to trial based on the shamans’ divinations, and false diviners could be executed by the king if their oracles proved wrong (Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt. 4.67.1) (Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt. 4.67.1). This account illustrates the high status and risky responsibility of Scythian seers in upholding justice and royal health.

Other Greek writers confirm these impressions. Hippocrates (or Pseudo-Hippocrates) in On Airs, Waters, Places (c. 5th–4th century BCE) remarks on Scythian men who became impotent and adopted female attire and tasks. He calls such people “Anarieis” and notes that the Scythians themselves attributed their condition to a divine affliction (OneTouch 4.0 Scanned Documents). In Hippocrates’ view, constant horseback riding and other physical causes “made them impotent,” but the Scythians held these effeminate males in religious regard, ascribing their state to the goddess Artimpasa (identified with Aphrodite) (OneTouch 4.0 Scanned Documents). This aligns with Herodotus’ description of the Enarees as effeminate shamans blessed by a goddess. Thus, Greek observers recognized the Scythian tradition of gender-nonconforming priests who acted as seers and healers in society.

Roman and later sources also mention Scythian shamans, often emphasizing their medicine and magic. For instance, during the Mithridatic Wars (1st century BCE), a group of Scythian medicine-men known as the “Agaroi” gained repute. According to Greek and Roman reports, these priests knew how to use snake venom for healing. They even treated King Mithridates VI’s battle wounds with snake venom to stop bleeding (Scythian religion - Wikipedia). The Agaroi were likewise famed for preparing a deadly poison the Greeks called “Scythikon” (literally “Scythian [poison]”) derived from venom (Scythian religion - Wikipedia). Roman writers like Pliny the Elder later note Scythian expertise with toxins and plant-based hallucinogens. The very term Scythian became associated with poisons and potions in the Greco-Roman imagination, reflecting the shamans’ apotropaic (both healing and harmful) knowledge.

Persian and Other Early References: In the Persian Achaemenid inscriptions, Scythian groups are called Saka. One branch is named Haumavargā Saka, meaning “Haoma-preparing Scythians” (HAUMAVARGĀ – Encyclopaedia Iranica) (HAUMAVARGĀ – Encyclopaedia Iranica). This suggests that these Scythians prepared and consumed Haoma – the sacred intoxicating drink also known in Vedic India as Soma. The name explicitly links them to the Indo-Iranian ritual of pressing and drinking haoma for religious ecstasy (HAUMAVARGĀ – Encyclopaedia Iranica) (HAUMAVARGĀ – Encyclopaedia Iranica). Persian records, alongside later Zoroastrian texts, indicate that the steppe tribes retained older Indo-Iranian shamanic rites involving entheogenic brews. Even Egyptian records (as cited by Greek historians) mention Scythians sweeping across the Near East, bringing their strange customs. While these Near Eastern sources are less detailed on spiritual practices, they corroborate that Scythians had distinct rituals that impressed or alarmed neighboring civilizations (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016) (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016). In summary, ancient accounts from multiple cultures consistently portray the Scythians as a people with powerful shamans – practitioners of prophecy, ritual healing, and trance – who held an esteemed and sometimes feared place in their society.

Archaeological Evidence of Shamanic Practices

Material discoveries across Scythian sites strongly support and enrich the picture given by textual sources. Burial mounds (kurgans) of Scythian nobility often contain clear evidence of ritual activity, priestly status, and even the use of mind-altering substances. For example, excavations in the Altai mountains (Pazyryk culture, 5th–4th c. BCE) uncovered chambers with braziers and charred cannabis seeds. One frozen tomb included a copper censer (incense burner) still containing cannabis residue, alongside tripods and pelts (Enaree - Wikipedia). This correlates with Herodotus’ report that after funerals the Scythians would purify themselves by inhaling hemp vapor in tent-saudas. In fact, chemical analyses of deposits in some golden ritual vessels from a Scythian site in southern Russia (Sengileevskoe-2) revealed cannabis and opium residues (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016) (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016). The find of THC-bearing cannabis combined with opium alkaloids in these 2,400-year-old vessels dramatically confirms that Scythian elites partook in drug-fueled ceremonies. As archaeologists Belinski and Gass note, this evidence “seems to confirm stories told by ancient authors, Herodotus among them, that the Scythians marked important occasions with drug-fueled rituals,” quoting almost verbatim Herodotus’ description of hemp vapor-baths (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016) (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016). The lack of burn marks on the gold bowls suggests opium may have been ingested as a drink while cannabis was burned as incense nearby (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016) (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016). Such artifacts – often ornately decorated with mythical animal motifs – were likely the paraphernalia of Scythian shamans or priests, used to induce trance and commune with the divine (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016) (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016).

Burial customs themselves point to shamanic and sacrificial practices. Scythian royal burials were elaborate rituals involving animal and human sacrifice, as both archaeology and Herodotus attest. At the Early Iron Age site of Tunnug 1 in Tuva (Siberia), archaeologists uncovered an elite kurgan (c. 9th century BCE) containing an honored chieftain, the remains of a woman (possibly a wife or servant), and at least 18 horses that had been deliberately sacrificed and buried around the grave (Archaeologists have found dozens more sacrificed horses in 2,800-year-old burial in Siberia that's eerily similar to Scythian graves | Live Science) (Archaeologists have found dozens more sacrificed horses in 2,800-year-old burial in Siberia that's eerily similar to Scythian graves | Live Science). Ongoing excavations revealed dozens more horse skeletons associated with this single burial (Archaeologists have found dozens more sacrificed horses in 2,800-year-old burial in Siberia that's eerily similar to Scythian graves | Live Science). The horses were interred with bridles and gear still in place, indicating a ritual slaughter to accompany the dead into the afterlife (Archaeologists have found dozens more sacrificed horses in 2,800-year-old burial in Siberia that's eerily similar to Scythian graves | Live Science) (Archaeologists have found dozens more sacrificed horses in 2,800-year-old burial in Siberia that's eerily similar to Scythian graves | Live Science). This kurgan, one of the oldest with such features, shows that the “horse-and-retainer sacrifice” was already a part of early Scythian culture. It mirrors Herodotus’ writing that when a Scythian king died, his closest servants were killed and buried with him, and fifty horses were sacrificed and mounted around the tomb as a final honor guard (Archaeologists have found dozens more sacrificed horses in 2,800-year-old burial in Siberia that's eerily similar to Scythian graves | Live Science) (Archaeologists have found dozens more sacrificed horses in 2,800-year-old burial in Siberia that's eerily similar to Scythian graves | Live Science). Other Scythian burials across the steppe – from Ukraine to Kazakhstan – have yielded similar finds of horse remains, weapons, and even chariots arranged in funerary context (Archaeologists have found dozens more sacrificed horses in 2,800-year-old burial in Siberia that's eerily similar to Scythian graves | Live Science) (Archaeologists have found dozens more sacrificed horses in 2,800-year-old burial in Siberia that's eerily similar to Scythian graves | Live Science). These graves not only confirm the Scythians’ ritual of animal sacrifice, but also suggest a belief in the shamanic guidance of souls: horses (and sometimes servants) were intended to aid the deceased’s journey in the spirit world.

Importantly, some high-status burials appear to be those of shamanic figures themselves. The famous “Siberian Ice Maiden” (Ukok Princess) from a Pazyryk kurgan is a mummified woman (5th c. BCE) buried with extraordinary care. She was adorned with intricate tattoos of fantastical animals (deer with griffon beaks, etc.) and wore a tall headdress decorated with animal motifs (Meet the 2500 year old Siberian Ice Maiden and her tattoos) (Meet the 2500 year old Siberian Ice Maiden and her tattoos). Six horses with ceremonial harnesses were sacrificed and placed in her tomb, underscoring her elite position (Meet the 2500 year old Siberian Ice Maiden and her tattoos) (Meet the 2500 year old Siberian Ice Maiden and her tattoos). Interestingly, her body had been embalmed (internal organs removed) before burial (Meet the 2500 year old Siberian Ice Maiden and her tattoos) (Meet the 2500 year old Siberian Ice Maiden and her tattoos), and a container of marijuana was found with her remains (Meet the 2500 year old Siberian Ice Maiden and her tattoos) (Meet the 2500 year old Siberian Ice Maiden and her tattoos). Many researchers believe she was not simply an aristocrat but a shaman-priestess of high rank. The combination of animal symbolism (tattoos and headdress suggest totemic protectors), mind-altering cannabis (possibly used to ease her pain in life or for ritual trance), and the ritual interment implies a spiritual function in life (Meet the 2500 year old Siberian Ice Maiden and her tattoos) (Meet the 2500 year old Siberian Ice Maiden and her tattoos). As anthropologist Natalia Polosmak (who led the excavation) and colleagues argue, the Ice Maiden’s elaborate grave goods and chemical evidence of cannabis point to her role as a spiritual healer or guide, rather than a warrior or mere “princess.” This aligns with a broader pattern: Scythian shaman-priests were buried with their ritual toolkit – items like incense burners, small metal rods or pipes (interpreted as inhalation devices), mirrors, and peculiar amulets often accompany such burials (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016) (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016). In Sarmatian graves on the fringes of the Scythian world, archaeologists even found pieces of chalk and realgar (arsenic sulfide) placed with the dead, likely symbolizing purification by fire in the afterlife (Scythian religion - Wikipedia) (Scythian religion - Wikipedia). All these material clues underscore a rich Scythian religious life in which shamans used specialized objects – from braziers of burning hemp to sacrificial knives and cauldrons – to perform rituals of healing, divination, and ensuring safe passage to the other world.

Parallels with Other Steppe Shamanic Traditions

Scythian shamanism did not exist in isolation; it shared many features with the shamanic traditions of other Eurasian steppe and Siberian peoples, while also exhibiting unique blends of Indo-Iranian religion. Scholars often draw parallels between Scythian practices and those of Siberian, Turkic, and Mongolic groups:

  • Altered States and Trance: Virtually all steppe shamanic traditions emphasize entering trance states to interact with spirits. The Scythians’ use of cannabis fumes for ritual intoxication (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016) finds strong parallels in Siberian shamanism, where trance might be induced by psychoactive plants or fungi (e.g. Amanita muscaria mushrooms among Siberian tribes). Later Turkic-Mongolic shamans more typically used rhythmic drumming and dancing to enter trance, but the concept of using a substance to achieve ecstasy was not alien – for instance, some Mongolian shamans did use incense or alcohol in rituals. The Scythian preference for hemp smoking is especially similar to practices recorded among certain Central Asian shamanic healers and fits the broader Eurasian pattern of entheogenic rituals (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016) (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016). In all cases, whether through plant, drum, or chant, the shaman’s goal is an altered state of consciousness to journey in the spirit world.

  • Gender and the “Third Gender” Shaman: The androgynous Scythian Enarees have noteworthy analogues in other shamanic cultures. Many Siberian and Turkic peoples recognized a tradition of gender-variant shamans. Among the Siberian Chukchi and Kamchatka Koryak, for example, male shamans sometimes dressed in women’s clothing and were believed to have special powers as “soft-men” or third-gender individuals (The Mysteries of the Enaree: The Androgynous Shamans of the Scythians - Shaman Portal) (The Mysteries of the Enaree: The Androgynous Shamans of the Scythians - Shaman Portal). This is remarkably similar to the Scythian Anarya (“unmanly ones”) who wore women’s attire and served the goddess of fertility (Scythian religion - Wikipedia) (Scythian religion - Wikipedia). The underlying idea – that embodying both masculine and feminine traits grants spiritual potency – is a recurring theme in shamanic cosmologies worldwide. Scythians likely borrowed and adapted this concept through contact with Siberian tribes. According to some analyses, the Scythians “adopted [the shamanistic role] from the native Siberian tribes… mixing that with their own religious beliefs” (The Mysteries of the Enaree: The Androgynous Shamans of the Scythians - Shaman Portal) (The Mysteries of the Enaree: The Androgynous Shamans of the Scythians - Shaman Portal) to create the unique figure of the Enaree. In contrast, the later Turkic and Mongolic shamanisms did have female shamans (and occasionally gender-bending ones) but generally less institutionalized than the Scythian Enarees. The religious role of these “third-gender” shamans in Scythia – chiefly prophecy and healing – aligns with the roles of their Siberian counterparts, underscoring a pan-steppe recognition of such individuals as sacred specialists.

  • Animal Totems and Spirit Helpers: Scythian culture is famous for its Animal Style art – gold adornments showing stags, eagles, panthers, and mythical creatures. This artistic focus on animals hints at a spiritual worldview akin to the animism of other steppe peoples. Like Siberian and Turkic shamans who don animal pelts or headdresses to invoke their spirit helpers, Scythian religious figures likely revered certain animals as clan totems or spirit guides. The tattooed beasts on the Pazyryk Ice Maiden (deer with griffon’s beak, etc.) could represent her personal totems or protector spirits, much as a Siberian shaman might tattoo or paint symbols of their guardian spirits on their body. Additionally, excavations have found Scythian headdresses with antler motifs and other animal designs, reminiscent of the elaborate costumes of Turkic and Mongol shamans who often wear antlers or bird feathers to embody spirits during rituals. Such similarities suggest a common steppe shamanic motif of connecting with nature’s powers through animal symbolism.

  • Cosmology and Deities: A key difference between Scythian shamanism and that of Mongolic/Turkic peoples lies in the pantheon and ritual structure. The Turkic-Mongolic nomads (e.g. Huns, Göktürks, Mongols) followed Tengrism, venerating a sky-father (Tengri) and earth-mother with relatively few idols, and shamans served as intermediaries without a formal priestly “caste.” The Scythians, being Iranian, had a more defined pantheon of gods (as noted by Herodotus) alongside their shamanic practitioners. For instance, Scythians worshipped Tabiti (hearth goddess), Papaeus (sky father), and others, and even built altar-mounds for Ares (the war god) where they sacrificed animals and captives ( LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book IV: Chapters 46‑82 ) ( LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book IV: Chapters 46‑82 ). This indicates a blend of shamanism with polytheism: Scythian priest-shamans performed orgiastic cult rites for deities like Artimpasa (a goddess of fertility and likely equivalent to Ishtar/Aphrodite) (The Mysteries of the Enaree: The Androgynous Shamans of the Scythians - Shaman Portal) (The Mysteries of the Enaree: The Androgynous Shamans of the Scythians - Shaman Portal), which were influenced by Near Eastern cults, while also practicing indigenous shamanic trance and divination rites related to Siberian tradition (Enaree - Wikipedia). In comparison, a Mongol shaman’s rituals might honor local spirits or Tengri but were less about servicing a formal temple cult. Thus, Scythian religion can be seen as dual-layered: an Indo-Iranian priestly pantheon worship merged with shamanic techniques common on the steppe (Enaree - Wikipedia). This sets them apart from purely shamanic societies, but also shows how steppe cultures influenced one another through exchange of religious ideas. The Scythians’ openness to “be influenced by many completely opposing cultures and adopt their practices” (The Mysteries of the Enaree: The Androgynous Shamans of the Scythians - Shaman Portal) (The Mysteries of the Enaree: The Androgynous Shamans of the Scythians - Shaman Portal) meant that Scythian shamanism was a unique syncretic bridge between the Indo-European and Siberian worlds.

In summary, parallels abound between Scythian shamans and those of neighboring steppe peoples: the use of trance (whether via hemp smoke or drum beats), the special status of gender-crossing shamans, the veneration of animal spirits, and the shaman’s role as healer-diviner. Yet, the Scythians also retained an Iranian organizational streak in their religion (e.g. royal priests, named deities) that distinguishes their practice from the more fluid shamanism of, say, Siberian hunter-gatherers or later Turkic nomads. This combination made Scythian spirituality exceptionally rich – “incredibly diverse and rich as a result” of influences from all sides (The Mysteries of the Enaree: The Androgynous Shamans of the Scythians - Shaman Portal) (The Mysteries of the Enaree: The Androgynous Shamans of the Scythians - Shaman Portal).

Shamanic Practices and Rituals

Ancient testimonies and archaeological findings allow us to reconstruct several core practices of Scythian shamans:

  • Trance Induction: Scythian ritual specialists induced trance states through inhalation of psychoactive smoke. Herodotus’ famous account describes Scythians throwing hemp (cannabis) seeds onto red-hot stones inside a felt tent, producing thick vapors that “delighted” them and made them shout with joy (Ancient Saunas with Cannabis - Beachcombing's Bizarre History Blog) (Ancient Saunas with Cannabis - Beachcombing's Bizarre History Blog). This was done especially after funerals as a purification rite, effectively a cannabis sauna. The euphoric, altered state likely facilitated a shaman’s spiritual journey or communal catharsis. Archaeology confirms this practice: cannabis seeds and burners in tombs show that cannabis was used in funerary and perhaps healing ceremonies (Enaree - Wikipedia) (Enaree - Wikipedia). Some scholars believe Scythian shamans also drank concoctions (haoma or opium mixtures) for stronger visions (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016) (Features - Rites of the Scythians - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2016). The combination of inhaled smoke and ritual beverage would produce an intense trance, enabling shamans to act as mediators to the spirit realm. Notably, the Enaree shamans may have been early adopters of cannabis for spiritual purposes – possibly making them among the first to use marijuana in religious ritual (Enaree - Wikipedia) (Enaree - Wikipedia). Scythian shamans in such trance could perform spirit journeys, commune with ancestors, or seek prophetic knowledge, much as shamans elsewhere do in ecstasy.

  • Divination and Prophecy: The Scythian shaman-priests were above all diviners. Two distinct methods are recorded: willow rod divination and linden bark braiding. The ordinary Scythian soothsayers would cast bundles of willow sticks on the ground and interpret patterns while speaking or chanting (Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt. 4.67.1). This “scapulimancy”-like practice (comparable to tossing bones or arrows among other nomads) was often a hereditary art. The Enaree shamans, however, used the flexible inner bark of the linden tree: cutting it into strips, weaving and unweaving it in their fingers to obtain oracles (Enaree - Wikipedia) (Enaree - Wikipedia). The outcome of these methods was seen as messages from the gods. Importantly, Scythian diviners were consulted at the highest level of society – even kings depended on their prophecies. As Herodotus notes, when the king was ill, the Enarees were summoned to divine the cause (believed to be a broken oath) (Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt. 4.67.1). Their visions could condemn individuals to death or exonerate them, illustrating the tremendous authority shamanic divination held in Scythian law and custom (Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt. 4.67.1). We also hear that Scythians would seek shamans’ guidance before major undertakings, such as war or migration. In essence, Scythian shamans acted as oracular priests, much like the oracle-women of Greece or the Magi of Persia, but using indigenous techniques (earth and tree elements) to channel the divine will.

  • Healing and Medicine: Like shamans elsewhere, Scythian spiritual leaders likely served as healers. They were known for remedies that bordered on magical. The Agaroi priesthood’s use of snake venom is one striking example: they had knowledge to use venom in controlled ways to treat wounds (stopping hemorrhage) (Scythian religion - Wikipedia). This suggests a sophisticated understanding of natural toxins and perhaps a ritual component (snakes may have been sacred to them). Scythian graves yield traces of medicinal herbs and ointments; for instance, remains of frankincense, cedar, and cypress were found, which Herodotus says Scythian women used in paste to cleanse the body (Ancient Saunas with Cannabis - Beachcombing's Bizarre History Blog) (Ancient Saunas with Cannabis - Beachcombing's Bizarre History Blog) – possibly a purification ritual with antiseptic qualities. The Scythian shamans likely applied poultices, performed bloodletting (note that many Scythians were cauterized on shoulders and arms – possibly a therapeutic or initiatory practice to toughen the body (OneTouch 4.0 Scanned Documents) (OneTouch 4.0 Scanned Documents)), and recited incantations for curing disease. They might also have acted as midwives and bone-setters, given nomadic life’s injuries. Some ancient sources allude to Scythian herbs that could induce trances or death – implying shamans were both healers and “sorcerers” who could poison. The dual capacity to cure or curse is typical of shaman figures (holding the balance of life and death), and Scythian shamans seem to fit this mold, wielding both remedies and poisons (as reflected in the term Scythikon for a lethal poison (Scythian religion - Wikipedia)).

  • Funerary and Psychopomp Rites: Scythian shamans very likely played a key role as psychopomps, guiding souls in death rituals. The grand funerals of Scythian kings involved 40 days of ceremonies (carrying the corpse to different clans, feasting with the dead present) (Ancient Saunas with Cannabis - Beachcombing's Bizarre History Blog), and finally burial with sacrifices. It is plausible that Enarees or other priests led these rites – performing chants, ecstatic dances, or sacrificial liturgies to ensure the dead’s safe passage. After interment, the cleansing with hemp smoke can be seen as a ritual both to purify the living and perhaps to send off the soul in a cloud of sacred smoke (Ancient Saunas with Cannabis - Beachcombing's Bizarre History Blog) (Ancient Saunas with Cannabis - Beachcombing's Bizarre History Blog). Some have speculated that the Enaree shamans, being devotees of the Great Goddess, acted as mediums during funerals, possibly conducting the deceased’s spirit to the otherworld (hence the term psychopompic rituals noted by researchers) (Enaree - Wikipedia) (Enaree - Wikipedia). The presence of horses in graves might also indicate the belief in a shamanic horse to carry the soul – a concept mirrored in Turkic lore where a shaman’s soul rides a horse or deer to the heavens. Thus, Scythian shamans not only tended to the living but also officiated death ceremonies, maintaining the cosmic order by propitiating the gods with sacrifices and leading the departed along the proper path.

  • Ecstasy and Orgiastic Cults: Some Scythian rites, especially those associated with the goddess Artimpasa (identified with Aphrodite Urania by Herodotus), were orgiastic and ecstatic in nature (The Mysteries of the Enaree: The Androgynous Shamans of the Scythians - Shaman Portal) (The Mysteries of the Enaree: The Androgynous Shamans of the Scythians - Shaman Portal). The Enarees were closely linked to her cult. This likely involved music, dance, and sexual elements to achieve communion with the deity. Scythian shamans here functioned similarly to ecstatic priesthoods in the Near East (like the Galli of Cybele or devotees of Ishtar), engaging in ritual orgies, possibly self-castration or transvestism, and use of intoxicants, to honor the goddess of fertility and prophecy. By combining frenzied dance with substance-induced trance, these shamans would enter ecstasy (ekstasis), believed to allow direct interaction with the goddess. The gold plaques and art from Scythian graves sometimes depict scenes of seated figures flanked by animals or humans in what could be ritual poses, hinting at ceremonial dances or trance rituals. While the details are scarce, it’s clear the Scythian religious repertoire ranged from solemn divinations to wild celebratory rites – and shamans were at the heart of these experiences, guiding participants through sacred ecstasy.

In sum, Scythian shamans (whether male, female, or Enaree) served as diviners, healers, and intermediaries who performed a spectrum of rituals: predicting the future, curing the sick, escorting souls, and invoking deities through ecstatic techniques. They utilized a variety of tools – sacred plants (hemp, opium), ceremonial swords and cauldrons, rhythmic chants, and their own bodies as vessels of the divine – to fulfill their duties. Their practices reflect a marriage of practicality (medicine, arbitration) and mysticism (trance, magic), characteristic of shamanic tradition.

Linguistic and Etymological Insights

Our understanding of Scythian shamanic culture is also enriched by linguistic clues from the Scythian language (an Eastern Iranian tongue), especially the specific terms recorded for religious roles and concepts:

  • “Enaree” / Anarya: The very name for the Scythian shaman-priests, Enaree (Greek plural Enarees), comes from the Scythian word anarya (Enaree - Wikipedia). This term is transparently Indo-Iranian in origin: it breaks down into a- “not” + narya “manly” (from nar = man, cf. Sanskrit nara, Avestan nar- of same meaning) (Enaree - Wikipedia). Thus Anarya literally means “un-man” or “unmanly one.” The Scythians used this as an honorific title for their androgynous shamans, indicating that even linguistically they marked these individuals as a separate category. The word’s Indo-Iranian roots reinforce that Scythian and the related Sarmatian languages belong to the Aryan (Indo-Iranian) family, where nar is man and the prefix a- denotes negation (Enaree - Wikipedia). Interestingly, anarya- in Sanskrit would mean “not noble” (as arya means noble), but in the Scythian context it specifically conveyed effeminacy or lack of male gender – showing a semantic shift in the steppe culture. Greek authors sometimes rendered the name more phonetically; Pseudo-Hippocrates writes it as “Anarieis” (Αναριεῖς) (Enaree - Wikipedia), preserving the Scythian sound. The adoption of this term into Greek discourse demonstrates how salient the Enarees were to observers. Linguistically, it also highlights how a role entwined with spiritual power was defined by a deviation from ordinary gender – a concept mirrored in many cultures by terms like “two-spirit” or similar. The fact that the Scythians had a native name for this priesthood implies it was an established institution among them.

  • Haoma/Hauma: As noted, the Old Persian inscriptions refer to Saka Haumavargā, i.e., Scythians who prepare Hauma (Haoma) (HAUMAVARGĀ – Encyclopaedia Iranica) (HAUMAVARGĀ – Encyclopaedia Iranica). The word hauma- (Avestan haoma, Vedic soma) is a key religious term in Indo-Iranian, naming both a sacred plant and the ritual drink made from it (HAUMAVARGĀ – Encyclopaedia Iranica) (HAUMAVARGĀ – Encyclopaedia Iranica). The inclusion of this term in the ethnonym suggests that the Scythians themselves had a word for this practice (likely similar to haoma). It establishes a linguistic link between Scythian rites and the wider Indo-Iranian Soma/Haoma cult. While the second element -vargā is debated (possibly “preparing” or “to lay/place” (HAUMAVARGĀ – Encyclopaedia Iranica) (HAUMAVARGĀ – Encyclopaedia Iranica)), the consensus is that the compound means something akin to “Haoma-preparers” or “Haoma-consumers.” In other words, a whole group of Scythians was identified by others (and perhaps by themselves) through their shamanic use of a psychotropic sacrament. This not only is a linguistic testament to the importance of entheogenic rituals in Scythian society, but also shows the continuity of terminology from the ancient Aryan lexicon. The Scythians likely had an equivalent word for a shaman-priest who prepared the sacred drink; for instance, in Vedic Sanskrit the priest who pressed soma was a soma-pavitra, and in Avestan the Haoma priest was a zaotar. The direct borrowing of hauma into Persian description of Scythians strongly hints that an analogous Scythian/Iranian term was in use ritually on the steppe.

  • Scythian Theonyms and Terms: Several Scythian theonyms (god names) recorded by Herodotus are intelligible through Indo-Iranian linguistics, offering clues to the religious lexicon. For example, Tabiti (Hestia) likely derives from the Iranian root tap-, “to shine, get warm,” fitting a hearth-fire goddess (cf. Sanskrit tapati “he heats”) (Herodotus: On the Scythians - jstor). Papaeus (Zeus) resembles “Papa” (father) and may be a local formation for a sky-father god (Herodotus: On the Scythians - jstor). The goddess Artimpasa (Aphrodite Urania) is conjectured to relate to Iranian arda- or arti- (perhaps from arta = cosmic order, or Ashi, a goddess of bounty) (Scythian Religion | Encyclopedia.com). If so, her name contains the idea of “propitious or holy”; interestingly, Artimpasa was patroness of the Enarees, so her name could encode aspects of ritual and ecstasy. Another deity name, Thagimasadas (Poseidon), is less clear but might conceal an Iranic term for a water or horse god. Understanding these names helps us see that the Scythians had their own words for spiritual entities and likely for spiritual roles. For instance, Scythian priests or shamans might have been called “oyev” or “magi” in their tongue; while the Greek texts don’t give a generic Scythian word for “shaman,” they do use Greek generic terms like “mantis” (seer) or “magos” (mage) in some contexts when describing foreign priests. It’s plausible that an average Scythian diviner was called something like drvš- (compare Avestan draoghǝnt-, a seer) or another Indo-Iranian term, but evidence is scant. What we do have are these theonyms and titles that align with the Indo-Iranian lexical family**, underscoring that Scythian spiritual vocabulary was a blend of inherited Aryan terms and innovations.

  • Greek and Latin Reflections: The interactions with Greeks led to some Scythian terms entering Greek language, often in reference to magic or exotic practices. For example, the Greek word “Skythikon” mentioned earlier was a term for a potent poison (Scythian religion - Wikipedia), literally meaning “Scythian [poison]”. This indicates that the Scythians were so associated with venom lore that their name itself became a root for magical substances in Greek. Another instance is the “Scythian lamb” ( Agriophotis in Latin) – actually a plant (Cibotium, a fern) believed to be used by Scythians in medicine or myth. While not directly about shamans, it shows Greek fascination with Scythian botanical knowledge and how words were borrowed or invented to label it. The term “Hyperborean” in Greek myth (people beyond the north wind) was sometimes identified with Scythians; these Hyperboreans were said to send sacred gifts and have shamans who could live for a thousand years. Though mythical, it’s another linguistic connection tying Scythians to mystical attributes. In Latin literature of the early Common Era, the phrase “Scythae sacerdes” (Scythian priest) or references to “Getae and their priests” appear, indicating the continuation of Scythian priestly stereotypes into later eras (the Getae of Thrace, related to Scythians, had a figure named Zalmoxis who was often considered a shaman-god by the Greeks).

  • Ossetian and Modern Parallels: The Scythian languages have no surviving texts, but their closest modern relatives are the Eastern Iranian languages like Ossetian (in the Caucasus). Scholars have noted that some Ossetian folk practices and terms might preserve ancient Scythian elements. For instance, Ossetian has the word æнар (ænar) meaning “giant” or “supernatural being,” which intriguingly echoes anar (man) with a twist – possibly a distant echo of anarya (though this is speculative). Ossetian traditional religion includes a supreme deity Khutsau (possibly from Indo-Iranian xud-svan, “self-bright”?), and priests called “tsæhgægg”, but those likely evolved later. However, the Nart sagas of the Ossetians (believed to preserve Scytho-Sarmatian lore) feature sorcerer figures and magical substances, which might reflect the old shamanic concepts. Linguistically, studying Ossetian and related Eastern Iranian tongues continues to shed light on how Scythians might have termed their rituals. For example, the concept of oath (so crucial in the king’s illness ritual) is art in Scythian (Herodotus says they swear by the “Art” meaning sacred fire of the hearth). This word art is essentially the Indo-Iranian ṛta (cosmic order, truth) – in Sanskrit ṛta, Avestan aṣa. Thus when Scythians swore by the king’s hearth fire, they were linguistically invoking arta (order/truth) (Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt. 4.67.1) (Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt. 4.67.1). This is a powerful example of an Indo-Iranian religious concept (Ṛta/Asha) persisting in Scythian usage.

In conclusion, the linguistic evidence – though fragmentary – confirms that the Scythians spoke an Indo-Iranian language replete with familiar roots for religious and shamanic concepts. Words like Anarya (Enaree) link directly to Indo-European terms for manhood and its negation (Enaree - Wikipedia), showing how language encoded the special status of shamans. References to haoma connect them to the wider Aryan ritual sphere (HAUMAVARGĀ – Encyclopaedia Iranica) (HAUMAVARGĀ – Encyclopaedia Iranica). Greek adoption of words like Skythikon highlights the notorious reputation of Scythian occult knowledge (Scythian religion - Wikipedia). And analysis of Scythian theonyms through Iranian etymology demonstrates a pantheon and cosmology in line with other Indo-Iranian peoples, albeit adapted to their shamanic, nomadic lifestyle. Each term and name we can parse acts as a small window into the belief system of the Scythians, complementing the pictures drawn by historians and archaeologists of their shamanic traditions.

Sources:

label Tags

history Published Apr 01, 2025

article Further Research

Related research papers will appear here